Instrumental And Integrative Motivation

Instrumental And Integrative Motivation Robert Gardner established a model of motivation in second language acquisition in 1985. The field of language teaching has been influenced for many years by the model which came from the studies of language immersion in Canada (Ehrman, 1996, p.139). The model describes two forms of motivation, instrumental and integrative. Instrumental motivation refers to learning to accomplish a task, such as passing a course, getting better pay, and so on (Ehrman, 1996, p.139). Integrative motivation refers to a favorable attitude toward the target language community, possibly a wish to integrate and adapt to a new target culture through use of the language (Gardner, 1985, p. 54). One of the Gardners main ideas is that the integrative motivation plays an important role in second language acquisition. It is directly and positively related to second language achievement. However, the Gardeners model has received lots of criticisms since it was published. The criticisms will be discussed in the foll owing. The model is criticized for overstating the importance of the integrative motive. Gardner simply used the candidates selection of integrative reasons over instrumental ones as evidence that integrative reasons have a higher level of motivational intensity (Gardner, 1985, p.53). Gardner found that the integrative motivation has an extremely high significance in his studies. Nevertheless, the instrumental orientation such as getting a job and passing an examination is also an important factor in second language learning. If learners with integrative motivation can achieve success since they are active in their learning, the same theory might be applicable to the learners with instrumental motivation. Instrumentally motivated learners may be successful since they are eager to learn to achieve their instrumental purposes. Integrative motivation is the central concept in the Gardners model. However, the support of the importance of the integrative motivation is not consistent. Some early studies did agree that integrative motivation was significant in second language learning (Gardner and Lambert, 1959) but some recent researches has shown that the instrumental motivation has an equal or better impact than the integrative motivation. In some cases, the integrative motivation is even considered as having a negative correlation with proficiency which in turn affecting the success of second language learning (Belmechri and Hummel, 1998; DÃ ¶rnyei, 1990). DÃ ¶rnyei (1990) suggested that instrumental motivation could be more important than integrative motivation for foreign language learners since foreign language learners are not likely to have sufficient knowledge and experience to take part in the culture of the people who speak the target language in their early stage of language learning. Integrative motivation may not play a significant role in the early stage of foreign language learners. The importance of different kinds of motivation can be different between second language learners and foreign language learners. Gardners emphasis on integrative motivation for language learning may not fit in all language learning situations (Schmidt, Boraie, and Kassabgy, 1999). The Gardners model have limited applicability for the learners who do not have frequent contact with the target language speakers since they have few opportunities to integrate with the speakers. There are many other factors contributing to the motivation of the learners who are far away from the target language speakers, such as instrumental motivation and knowledge orientation. Gardner should not overstate the importance of integrative motivation in all language learning situations. The significance of different types of motivation may vary from one to another language learning situations. Actually, integrative and instrumental motivations are not necessarily mutually exclusive. Brown (2000) stated that learners rarely select only one type of motivation when learning a second language. The motivation of learning a second language is usually a combination of different forms of orientations. He has cited an example of international students who are residents in the United States. The international students learn English for academic purposes while wishing to be integrated with the people and culture of the country at the same time. This example has clearly shown that integrative and instrumental motivations can mutually exist. In some cases, it is difficult to divide instrumental and integrative motivations. To conclude, the importance of instrumental motivation is being concerned more in the later studies while the significance of integrative motivation has continued to be emphasized. However, it is important to note that the instrumental motivation has only been regarded as an important factor in second language learning while integrative motivation is continually linked to the success of second language learning. Motivation is a significant contribution to second language learning achievement. Therefore, identifying the types and combinations of motivations is one of the keys to successful second language learning. At the same time, learners should be reminded that there are always other variables which can be unique to each language learner affecting the success of second language learning. References Belmechri, F., Hymmel, K. (1998). Orientations and motivation in the acquisition of English as a second language among high school students in Quebec City, Language Learning Brown, H.D. (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice-Hall. DÃ ¶rnyei, Z. (1990). Conceptualizing motivation in foreign language learning. Language Learning Ehrman, E. (1996) Understanding Second Language Learning Difficulties. London: Sage Publications Gardner, R. C., Lambert, W. E. (1959). Motivational variables in second language acquisition. Canadian Journal of Psychology Gardner, R.C. (1985). Social psychology and language learning: The role of attitudes and motivation. London, Ontario: Edward Arnold. Schmidt, R., Boraie, D., Kassabgy, O. (1999). Foreign language motivation: Internal structure and external connections. In R. L. Oxford (Ed.), Language learning motivation: Pathways to the new century. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.

Controversy Over Full-Body Scanners

Having security inside an airport is a necessary and important safety precaution, but there is controversy as to how to achieve an effective airport screening system, and yet provide privacy to travelers. A recent national debate has arisen on the topic of installing new Full Body Scanners into airport security systems nationwide. The scanners are thought to be an invasion of privacy, have a very high cost, and are an ineffective security method.One of the key issues for the usage of full body scans is that it can be a major invasion of privacy to people being screened during the airport security process. For instance in the article â€Å"Debate Over Full Body Scans vs. Invasion of Privacy Flares After Incident,† the author John Schwartz explains that â€Å"images produced by the machine can be startlingly detailed†(1). So despite claims of â€Å"blurry and opaque images† they can in fact have the potential to become detailed images.This could potentially make th e security process a humiliating experience and discourage some people from air travel. In another article by U. S. A today â€Å"Our View On Transportation Security: Airport Body Scanners Balance Safety and Privacy,† they found out that â€Å"TSA sought to buy scanners that can store and send images in test mode†(1). If the scanners that can store photos are utilized by airport security systems, then it is possible that the images could be copied or shared.People should not have to worry that their semi nude images are going to be shared, however slight the risk. Is it not true that travellers should feel comfortable during the check in process and not need to be concerned about a humiliating or undignified experience? Another important argument against the instillation of full body scanners is that they can be overly expensive relative to traditional screening methods. Jessica Ravidz supports this argument in her article â€Å"Airport Security Bares All, or does it? ,† saying â€Å" each machine can cost up to a total of $170,000 per scanner†(1). It is a costly and unnecessary project because there is already a effective security system in place. It would be cheaper to stay with the current methods of security, such as metal detectors and pat downs than to incorporate a much more costly alternative. A story in The Wall Street Journal â€Å"TSA Pressed on Full-Body Scans Despite Concerns,† Cam Simpson and Daniel Michaels say in the paper that â€Å"The U. S.Transporation Security Administration plans to buy 450 body scanners, and that the Department of Homeland Security announced that they are purchasing 300 more this year†(1). This is a large fund of money that could be used for better training, different technologies, and more efficient systems moving people through the airport security process. Another way the money could be used is to fund investigations and intelligence work and detect threats before they even arr ive at the airport. The financial costs vs benefits to airport security does not appear to support adding Full Body Scanners to our current methods.A different debate on the usage of body scanners is that they are an ineffective security system and cannot detect certain objects. An example is in the story â€Å"Debate Over Full Body Scanner vs. Invasion of Privacy Flares Anew After Incident,† by John Schwartz states that â€Å"the machines cannot, for example, detect objects stowed in bodily orifices or concealed within folds of an obese person’s flesh†(2). This proves that the scanner technology is limited and can be deceived under certain circumstances. Therefore the scanners are only useful against a limited number of threats.In the same article Bruce Schneider, a technological security expert is interviewed and says â€Å"If there are a hundred tactics and I protect against two of them, I’m not making you safer, if we use full body scanning, they are going to use something else†(2). He brings up a point that even though the scanners can detect certain concealed objects they still only protect against a few specific threats. And now that people know about the scans and how they work they now also know how to get around them. Those are the reasons on why it is an inefficient security method and should not be put into use as primary airport security.In conclusion this proves that the usage of Full Body Scanners in airports would not be a conventional method to replacing current security processes. The reasons being on why they would not be viable solution are that they are an invasion of privacy to travelers, a costly national project, and would be an ineffective method for increasing security. The solution to the problem dealing with body scanners is to not install them in airports at all, but to stay with traditional methods and finding other means to improve on the current system.

Affinity Orientation Discrimination Cases Study Essay

Imagine that you are a department manager and you find out that a man you work with has become a woman, or you find out a woman you work with enjoys the private company of woman, would these concepts cause you to discriminate against your employees in the workplace? Analysis of case studies, understanding applicable laws, and recommending clearly defined policies for the workplace will assist with understanding and preventing affinity orientation discrimination. It is important in today’s workplace to have an intricate understanding of the difference between affinity orientation and the word sex as it pertains to Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Title VII). The term sex referred to in Title VII represents the gender of an individual employee. Affinity orientation refers to the intimate relationship that an individual may have with another individual of the same gender, or an individual’s desire to become the opposite gender, either temporarily or permanently. There are various types of affinity orientation, none of which are protected by Title VII (Bennett-Alexander, 2001 p.243). One example affinity orientation would be a woman who is a lesbian or a man who is gay. It is becoming increasingly popular for men and women to have a surgical procedure performed to become the opposite gender; this too is a form of affinity orientation. Affinity orientation has become a subject of adversity in the workforce as a result of there being little protection against discrimination for employees participating in the various types of affinity orientation. Case study analysis is a method that management can utilize to better understand affinity orientation in the workplace and preventing discrimination. Case Study #1 Michael is employed at ABC Hospital as an operating nurse. Michael had taken a leave of absence from work to have a gender change operation. Upon Michael’s return to work at ABC Hospital Michael wanted to be addressed by  the name Michelle. Since Michelle completed the gender change surgical procedures she felt that she had the right to utilize the women’s locker room and shower like all the other women employed at ABC Hospital. The male employees did not want Michelle to use the men’s locker room because of her gender change. The women refused to share the women’s locker room with Michelle, because the women knew of Michelle’s original gender. At ABC Hospital it is standard procedure for operating room nurses to wear unisex surgical scrubs. Therefore, I do not see the reason why she want use the men locker and shower room. Michelle is not wearing a uniform dress with a cap as a nurse while at work. I feel that she is still considered as a man. Michelle is hoping to file discrimination against her co-workers since having the sex change because no one is accepting her as a female. If she were hired as a male she should not feel discriminatory. I think that she should be accommodated with a locker room and shower that is for either a man or a woman. Case Study #2 Tracy is a lesbian who alleges that she has been denied an internal company promotion due to the fact that her department manager does not want to support her lesbian lifestyle. Mr. Green, Tracy’s department manager, is accused of discriminating against Tracy by not writing her a letter of recommendation for a promotion. Tracy feels that the excellent yearly performance reviews that Mr. Green wrote for her entitles her to obtain a letter of recommendation from Mr. Green. There are legitimate reasons for Tracy’s discrimination claim to be denied. Title VII offers protection against discrimination at the workplace; however, Title VII does not protect against affinity orientation in the workplace. There are no federal laws that prevent a person from being fired or refused a job on the basis of affinity orientation. There are however, the First, Fifth, and Fourteenth Amendments to the Constitution of the United States of America, that offer freedom of speech, the right to privacy, and equal  protection under law (Bennett-Alexander, 2001, p.243). Tracy does not have a discrimination claim against her department manager Mr. Green as a result of affinity orientation. Tracy’s supervisor Mr. Green gave her excellent annual performance evaluations that are more than sufficient enough to apply and expect to be eligible any company promotions. Mr. Green is not obligated to give employees letters of recommendation for promotions, transfers, or applications for employment inside or outside of the company where he is employed as a department manager. The company followed all employee performance review procedures correctly. It is standard practice for companies to place the best-suited candidate in vacant positions. The use of employment evaluations ensures that all candidates are given equal opportunity for job advancements. Should Mr. Green have given Tracy poor performance evaluations on a consistent basis, Tracy may have been able to prove a discrimination claim. It is important to have set policies in place to keep employees informed of what criteria must be met for company advancement or promotions. Employment manuals are a suitable method of ensuring that employees are notified of company policies. In an effort to eliminate future claims of discrimination in the workplace relating to company advancement, Mr. Green should have established set policies regarding letters of recommendation. It is recommended that Mr. Green have the employee manual clearly state that department managers are not permitted to write referral letters for employees applying any positions within the company. The policy would be based on the fact that a letter of recommendation made by a department manager could indicate preference in the workplace and unfair advantage for certain employees. Another option Mr. Green could have implemented would be to permit employees to obtain letters of recommendation from sources outside of the company. Outside recommendations could strengthen an employee’s resume while not creating the opportunity for discrimination in the workplace. An implemented policy that addresses the importance of an employee’s ability to meet and  satisfy the requirements of the position would lessen the likeliness of a discrimination claim. Regardless of which position the company takes with respect to letters of recommendation, employees would be advised of company policies well in advance of applying for any positions within the company. Taking precautions in the workplace through the use of implemented policies can eliminate potential discrimination claims. Analyzing case studies, reviewing applicable laws, and recommending policies for the workplace are an excellent method of preventing affinity orientation discrimination. References Bennett-Alexander, D. D., & Hartman, L. P. (2001). Employment Law for Business (III ed.) Boston, Massachusetts: Mc Graw-Hill Primis.

Importance of Ethics in International Business - 1541 Words

Importance of Ethics in International Business Executive Summary Ethics in the business world is important and global. Ethics indicate what is right and what is wrong in business branches and also lead employees and stakeholders with moral values. Due to the globalization of markets and production processes, business people have to deal with ethical issues in cross-cultural settings at an increasing number. The purpose of this paper is to explain the importance of international business, emphasise the ethics of a business and the significance of ethics in terms of expanding internationally. Ultimately, creating and maintaining acceptable organizational ethics will become beneficial in international business. Why do businesses†¦show more content†¦Therefore, the reputation of having good ethical behaviour will lend to more investment, which is beneficial. In the business world, partnerships happen all the time. Good partners help companies do well in joint ventures. The only way to get good partners is to have a good reputation both in terms of a track record and in terms of your business overall (Yucel, 2009). Having a strong tradition of ethical business behaviour is the best way to get a good reputation. An organization creating good business ethics has to be aware of the ethical concerns as well. Are there any ethical concerns for international organizations? The ethical concerns of businesses have been rising for decades. This is because of the various problems due to the aftermath of globalizing economies and markets, which have executives facing ethical issues in their markets in which they conduct business. (Gokmen, 2012). Therefore, the ethical rules and codes in international business can be complicated. Corporate responsibility, social responsibility and bribery and corruption are critical ethical concerns of international organizations. 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